A tremendous amount of research has been undertaken to discover and understand cues that influence eyes movements in daily life attentional behavior for tasks such as reading, scene perception, and visual search (see, e.g., Borji & Itti,
2013; Carrasco,
2011; Henderson,
2003; Land & Hayhoe,
2001; Posner,
1980; Schütz, Braun, & Gegenfurtner,
2011; Tatler, Hayhoe, Land, & Ballard,
2011). Two categories of cues have been identified:
bottom-up (BU) cues such as discontinuities in contrast, color, intensity, brightness, motion, and spatial frequency in the visual stimulus (a.k.a. saliency; Borji,
2012; Borji & Itti,
2012a; Itti & Koch,
2001; Itti, Koch, & Niebur,
1998; Koch & Ullman,
1985; Krieger, Rentschler, Hauske, Schill, & Zetzsche,
2000; Mannan, Ruddock, & Wooding,
1996; Milanese, Wechsler, Gill, Bost, & Pun,
1994; Parkhurst, Law, & Niebur,
2002; Peters, Iyer, Itti, & Koch,
2005; Reinagel & Zador,
1999; Treisman & Gelade,
1980); and
top-down (TD) cues mediated by factors such as task demands (Ballard, Hayhoe, & Pelz,
1995; Borji & Itti,
2014; Borji, Sihite, & Itti,
2014; Einhäuser, Rutishauser, & Koch,
2008; Land & Hayhoe,
2001; Land & Lee,
1994; Triesch, Ballard, Hayhoe, & Sullivan,
2003; Yarbus,
1967), context effects and scene gist (Torralba, Oliva, Castelhano, & Henderson,
2006), expertise with similar scenes (Underwood, Foulsham, & Humphrey,
2009), object appearance and spatial priors in visual search (Ehinger, Hidalgo-Sotelo, Torralba, & Oliva,
2009; Kanan, Tong, Zhang, & Cottrell,
2009; Wolfe,
1998; Wolfe & Horowitz,
2004), tendency of observers to look near the center of displays (also known as image center-bias; Tatler,
2007), tendency of observers to look near the center of objects (also known as object center-bias; Nuthmann & Henderson,
2010), memory (Carmi & Itti,
2006; Droll, Hayhoe, Triesch, & Sullivan,
2005), emotion (Ramanathan, Divya, Nicu, & David,
2014), gender (Shen & Itti,
2012), and culture (Chua, Boland, & Nisbett,
2005).